ABSTRACT
Air quality continues to be among the top
environmental concerns in Nigeria. In nigeria, where majority of the rural population uses charcoal, very
little is known about the impacts of the life-cycle of the fuel on the
livelihoods of the producers, who endure significant health, safety, and
environmental risks for marginal gain in a highly lucrative industry.
Population increases and deviations from the energy ladder model suggest that
charcoal demand for heating and cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to
increase through the year 2030 and beyond. Charcoal production industry
can use an air monitoring program to assist in addressing its environmental
responsibilities, and its responsibility as a local community member. Industry
performance monitoring enables industrial plant to be managed in an
environmentally sustainable manner .
A
survey of air quality in a charoal production site Amukpe sapele
and environs in the Niger delta area of Nigeria revealed that air
quality in the area is affected to varying degrees by industrial activities in
the production site.
This report covers a brief background of the
study, state of the problems, aims and
objectives of the work done, the scope of the research and also the relevance of work done with
regards to the analysis of emissions produced by a charcoal production facility
located in amukpe sapele delta state. An
accredited environmentalist was involved as a third party. Consulting an
independent third party to perform the measurements give more credible results and provide unavailable equipment
required for the analysis.
The aim and
purpose of the project is the evaluate the concentration of particulate matter
and gaseous pollutants present within a 2km radius of the charcoal production
facility. The significance of this
experiment is to detect if air in the
surrounding environment is polluted with emitted gase from the production
site, which can be detrimental to human
health. A survey of air quality in amukpe
sapele and environs in the Niger delta area of Nigeria revealed that air
quality in the area is affected to varying degrees by industrial, human and
natural activities.
The
discussed results indicate that a local charcoal production facility can be sustainable
and without a significant environmental impact in sense of its emissions. However
some deeper environmental performance evaluation could take place with the availability
of measurement equipment with a wider measurement range, higher precision and
more suitable for measurements in a charcoal factory. Also, the results
indicates large amounts of concentration of pollutants within the immediate
environment of the immediate environment. It is recommended that charcoal
producers in amukpe sapele waer appropriate PPE’s and follow WHO guidelines and
recommendations to control and reduce emissions.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Charcoal is a woodfuel produced in rural
areas and consumed in cities and towns. Some of the factors influencing the
choice of using charcoal instead of firewood in urban areas include: Charcoal
has a higher calorific value per unit weight that firewood, it is therefore
moree conomic to transport charcoal over longer distances as compared to
firewood; Storage of charcoal takes less room as compared to firewood; Charcoal
is not liable to deterioration by insects and fungi which attack firewood;
Charcoal is almost smokeless and sulphur – free, as such it is ideal fuel for
towns and cities. It is estimated that approximately 1.5 billion people in
developing countries derive at least 90% of their energy requirements from wood
and charcoal. Another one billion people meet at least 50% of their energy
needs this way. In most developing countries, 90% of the people depend on
fuelwood as their chief source of fuel and each year the average user burns
anywhere from a fifth of a ton, in extremely poor, wood short areas such as
India, to well over a ton in parts of Africa and South Asia (GFC, undated). In
1999, it was estimated that 1.9 billion m³ of wood was burned for cooking, to provide
heat or to manufacture charcoal for later burning (FAO, 1999).
Large-scale charcoal production, primarily
in sub Saharan Africa, has been a
growing
concern due to its threat of deforestation, land degradation and climate change
impacts. It is cited as the most environmentally devastating phase of this
traditional energy supply chain, and despite increasing per capita income,
higher electrification rates, and significant renewable energy potential,
charcoal still remains the dominant source of cooking and heating energy for
eighty percent of households in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) (Arnold et al, 2006;
Zulu and Richardson, 2013). As a traditional fuel that has been used for
hundreds of years, it serves as a lifeline for the rapidly increasing populations
in the urban centers of the region, in addition to potentially significant portions
of the rural population. Due to its low cost compared to other fuels like kerosene
and liquefied petroleum gas, as well as other factors that will be discussed in
the coming sections, the demand for charcoal is expected to continue rising dramatically
in the coming decades, despite best efforts by modern energy advocates. Charcoal
use in SSA is predicted to double by 2030, with over 700 million Africans relying
on it as a durable, preferred, and cheap source of energy. With a forecasted increase
in consumption, there is a great need to identify real versus perceived energy futures
with respect to charcoal. Research has shown that large-scale transitions to modern
energy sources will only occur once a certain income threshold is met, while other
studies have indicated that even with large increases in earned income, the
large majority of many SSA countries continue to utilize charcoal. If a
continued reliance on charcoal is suggested, there is an even greater need to
evaluate and address the
environmental
and social issues associated with this highly influential, and largely
informal,
industry.
Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or
discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural
environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. It can be defined as the
presence in the outdoor or indoor atmosphere of one or more gaseous or
particulate contaminants in quantities, characteristics and of duration such as
to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property
(Odigure, 1998). It has been difficult to achieve cooperation for air pollution
control in developing countries like Nigeria, whose chief concern is to provide
such basic need as food, shelter and employment for her populace.
A
substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment is known
as an air pollutant. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid
droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made (Anderson,
2005). The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is
essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to
air pollution has
long been recognized as a threat to
human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and
urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution problems in
the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report (Anderson,
2005).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The pollutants emitted from a charcoal production site have the ability
to cause adverse health affects such as respiratory diseases. The charcoal
producers in this region are not well enlightened and do not consider the the
dangers these emissions possess if the enter the environment in significant
levels. Hence, they would not be able tackle the problem of air pollution and
green house gas emissions produced by the pryolysis of charcoal. Worryingly,
the government through the medium of environmental protection agencies do not
pay much attention to these process produces considerable amounts of green
house gases and suspended particle matter which are discharged into natural
receptors, (majorly air) leading to major environmental problems in
the long run.
A
review of the literature surrounding charcoal supply chains in Sub-Saharan
Africa
paints a clear picture that the demand for this energy source will not remain
stagnant,
but will increase dramatically through the year 2030 . Even in countries where
electrification rates are at their highest, as in Ghana, 60-70% of the population still use charcoal
for cooking and heating , a finding identified in numerous studies that
deviates from the traditional energy ladder model. Electricity rarely replaces charcoal
as a fuel, though increases in income lead to higher usage of more refined
fuels, like kerosene and LPG, to replace biomass; this helps to illustrate the
negative, and often misleading, correlation found between charcoal and
electrification. In some of the least developed countries, like Liberia, where
less than one percent of the population is connected to grid electricity, 95%
rely on traditional biomass fuels in the form of wood and charcoal. In the
growing rural areas, charcoal is the primary fuel used for heating and cooking,
as poor infrastructure, high cost, and low-income levels limit market growth
for refined cooking fuels.
Health-related
impacts associated with woodfuels have traditionally focused on
effects
from their consumption. Indoor air pollution (IAP) is the primary concern given
the high concentrations of smoke and particulate matter released during
woodfuel combustion. Smith et al (2002) documented trends in respiratory
illness among disproportionate numbers of women and children as a result of IAP
from woodfuel combustion throughout the developing world. However, little is
known about the nhealth impacts endured by charcoal producers during extraction
and production phases. For example, it is known that pyrolysis, the process
utilized for the production of charcoal, releases significant amounts of
gaseous by-products, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and others known to be deadly to humans in moderate concentrations
through the use of dose-response studies. Rural producers are known to work within close
proximity to high temperature kilns that off-gas these highly toxic compounds,
generating potential high risk for poisoning. In addition, use of primitive tools
can potentially lead to moderate or severe injuries, which can prove fatal in
rural areas that lack access to adequate medical care. Academic literature and
government reports refer to the working conditions of charcoal producers as
unsafe; government officials and research papers alike mention these ‘hazards’
in passing.
Additional indicators of social threats
include widespread child labor, gender differences in education and production
outcomes, extreme price variability often at the hands of merchants and the
lack of potential for poverty alleviation in current methods of production. The
lack of regulation in the charcoal industry creates the highest risk of
exploitation
and safety hazards, yet no studies have investigated in-depth the health and
social risks associated with the production of this highly demanded fuel.
1.3 Aim and Objectives
of Study
The aim of this study is to determine the presence of air pollutants in
significant concentrations and its spatial distribution to its surrounding
environment along a two kilometre radius and its effects on in one of it.
The specific objectives are to
1. Determine the presence of air pollutants in gaseous
emissions discharged from a charcoal production facility.
2. Run ambient air quality analysis to determine the
spatial distribution of these air pollutants in the surrounding environment
over a 2km radius.
3. Compare results of the study to national and
international standard such as the world health organisation and draw out
conclusions.
4. Suggest solutions to the problems of these air
pollutants to the surroundings and give recommendations and control methods.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF
PROJECT
This study will help confirm the true distribution of air pollutants
discharged from t production of charcoal in the sampled community. The
concentration, translocation and distribution of the specified air pollutants
in relation to the distance will also be
determined; this should help complete a holistic pollution cycle analysis. Results
of this research project should further serve as baseline studies for further
research work on charcoal production in amukpe sapele and studies on the
effects of the charcoal industry’s activities.
1.5 SCOPE OF
RESEARCH
1.5.1
Analysis of Emissions And Controls
There are five types of products and
byproducts from charcoal production operations: charcoal, noncondensible gases
(carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2],
methane, and ethane), pyroacids (primarily acetic acid and methanol), tars and
heavy oils, and water. With the exception of charcoal, all
of these
materials are emitted with the kiln exhaust. Product constituents and the
distribution of these constituents vary, depending on raw materials and carbonization
parameters. Organics and CO are naturally combusted to CO2 and water before leaving the
retort. Because the extent of this combustion varies from plant to plant,
emission levels are quite variable. ethanol, and polycyclic organic matter. If
uncombusted, tars may solidify to form SPM emissions, and pyroacids may form
aerosol emissions.
The charcoal briquetting/stacking process
is also a potential source of emissions. The crushing, screening, and handling
of the dry raw charcoal may produce PM and PM-10 emissions. Briquette pressing
and drying may be a source of VOC emissions, depending on the type of binder
and other additives used. Continuous production of charcoal is more amenable to
emission control than batch production because emission composition and flow
rate are relatively constant. Emissions from continuous multiple earth charcoal
kilns generally are controlled with afterburners. Cyclones, which commonly are
used for product recovery, also reduce PM emissions from continuous kilns.
Afterburning is estimated to reduce emissions
of PM, CO, and VOC by at least 80 percent. Control of emissions from batch-type
charcoal kilns is difficult because the process and, consequently, the
emissions are cyclic. Throughout a cycle, both the emission composition and
flow rate change. Batch kilns do not typically have emission control devices,
but some may use after-burners. Particulate matter emissions from briquetting
operations can be controlled with a centrifugal collector (65 percent control)
or fabric filter (99 percent control).
1.5.2 CHARCOAL AT A
GLANCE
Charcoal is produced in slow pyrolysis
carbonisation process. The charcoal yield being dependent on such process
parameters as the final temperature, the biomass particle size, the heating
rate and the reaction atmosphere (Elyounssi et al., 2012). Charcoal contain a
large number of pollutants and known health hazards: particulate matter (PM),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide, sulfur oxides (mainly from coal),
formaldehyde, and polycyclic organic matter, including carcinogens such as benzo[a]pyrene
and benzene (5-8). Exposure to indoor air pollution from the combustion
of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a
causal agent of several diseases in developing countries, including acute respiratory
infection (ARI) and otitis media (middle ear infection), chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer (for coal smoke), asthma, nasopharyngeal
and laryngeal cancer, tuberculosis.
In amukpe sapele, charcoal is traditionally
made in small, simple batch-type kilns where the parameter management and control is very
limited.
The charcoal production feed can be a wide range of materials. Different types
of biomass feed lead to the production of different charcoal grades – basic
grade biochar, premium grade biochar and charcoal. The used biomass can be
starting from biodegradable waste from local waste collection services to
hardwood (Schmidt et al., 2012). The use of biodegradable waste for production
of valuable materials and energy is highly recommendable in order to reach the
EU targets for minimization of the share of landfilled biodegradable waste as
well as to avoid resource scarcity (Pubule et al., 2014). In the early 1940’s the most
successful charcoal production technologies were developed
- the Lambiotte and SIFIC process. This is a continuous carbonization process
where the retort is filled continuously with wood from the top, while
downstream simultaneously carbonisation takes place. The cooled charcoal is
removed from the bottom. The process is energy autonomous gaining the necessary
heat from burning gases attained from pyrolysis. The gases go through a condenser
and afterwards are blown in the bottom of the retort where it cools the fresh charcoal
while preheating the gases (Vertes et al., 2010). This technology has much higher
process control and it offers the possibility of producing charcoal more
efficiently and with higher increased yields then the traditional batch
methods. This leads to the conclusion that with an increased interest of
charcoal production this kind of technologies have to be evaluated form the
environmental performance aspects.
The drying of the firewood is crucial
for proper functioning of the retort torch, where the excess pyrolysis gases are
burnt before emitting to the atmosphere.
The fresh wood is received with around 55%
moisture content, while the technological process requires the moisture content
of the input fuel to be below 25%. The
drying takes place in four chamber dryers heated with wood-fuelled water
boilers. The retort is operated under experimental conditions in order to carry
out the relevant measurements that
describe the production facilities’ environmental performance
regarding the emissions. The discovered results can be used to evaluate whether
there is place for charcoal production in an economically developed country where
the environmental performance is of high importance, and it is strictly
regulated.