CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) also
known as Female Genital Cutting (FGC), Female circumcision, or Female
Genital Mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is defined by the World Health
Organization (2007) as “all procedures that involve partial or total
removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female
genital organ for non-medical reasons. The practice of FGM is one of the
most significant health and human right issues in the world (UNICEF
2005). Thorpe (2002) on his part describe Female Circumcision as
excision, where part of the labia minora and the majora are stitched
together and a hole left to allow the urine and menstrual blood to
escape. In a similar vein, Amnesty International (1997) states that
Female Circumcision is the removal of all or part if the labia minora
and cutting of the majora to create raw surfaces which are then held
firm by a collar over the vagina when they heal.
Although the exact origin of Female
Genital Mutilation cannot be stated. There are some evidence suggesting
that it originated from ancient Egypt (WHO 1996). An alternative
explanation is that the practice was an old Africa rite that came to
Egypt by diffusion. According to UNICEF (2005) the majority of FGM cases
are carried out in 28 Africa Countries. In some countries (e.g Egypt,
Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan), prevalence rate can be as high as 98
percent in other countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, Togo and Senegal, the
prevalence rates vary between 20 and 50 percent. It is more accurate
however to view FGM as being practiced by specific ethnic group, rather
than by a whole country as communities practicing FGM straddle national
boundaries.
Until the 1950s FGM was performed in
England and the United States as a common treatment for lesbianism,
masturbation, hysteria, epilepsy and other so called “female deviances”
(Reymond, 2007). In a study in Kenya and Sierra Leone it was revealed
that most protestants opposed FGM while majority of Catholic and Muslims
supported it continuation. (Ali, 2007). Also there was a direct
correlation between a woman’s attitude towards FGM and her place of
residence, educational background, and work status. (Mohamud, 2008).
Demographic and Health Survey indicates that urban women are less likely
than their rural counterpart to support FGM. Employed women are also
less likely to support it. Women with little or no education are more
likely to support the practice than those with a secondary or higher
education. Data from the 2004 Sudanese Survey (of women 15 to 49 years
old) show that 80 percent of women with no education or only primary
education support FGM, compared to only 55 percent of those with Senior
Secondary or higher schooling (Ali, 2007).
FGM takes place in parts of
the Arabian, Peninsula i.e Yemen and Oman, and is practiced by the
Ethiopian Jewish Falachas some of whom have recently settled in Israel.
It is also reported that FGM is practiced among Muslim population in
parts of Malaysia, Pakistan, Indonesia, and the Philippines (UNICEF
2008). As a result of immigration and refugee movement, FGM is now being
practiced by ethnic minority population in other parts of the World
such as USA, Canada, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. According to
Foundation for Women’s Health Research and Development(2002) it is
estimated that as many as 6,500 girls are at risk of FGM within U.K
every year.
This diffusion has raised the issue of
the need for human service provider to get involved in curbing FGM.One
such providers are social workers, who by the nature of their training
are equipped to stand against injustice and oppression (Zastrow, 2000).
FGM according to Idowu (2008) is injustice and oppression against woman.
The procedures in most cases according to Yoder (2003) are carried out
by older women with no medical training. Anesthetics are not used and
the practice is usually carried out using basic tools such as knives,
scissors, scalpels, pieces of glass and razor blades. Often iodine or a
mixture of herbs is placed on the wound to tighten the vagina and stop
the bleeding. The age at which the practice is carried out varies from
shortly after birth to the labour of the first child, depending on the
community or individual family.
The reasons for FGM are diverse, often
bewildering to outsiders and certainly conflicting with modern western
medical practices and knowledge. The justification for the practice is
deeply inscribed in the belief systems of those cultural groups that
practice it. Custom and tradition are the main justification given for
the practice (Muganda 2002).People adheres to this practice because its
part of their culture and fulfilling this aspect of culture gives them a
sense of pride and satisfaction.
According to Ali (2007) FGM is seen by
some people as an essential part of social cohesion and not an act of
hate. It is carried out on children because their parents believe it is
in their best interest, which is one of the myths of FGM. In some
communities where FGM takes place, it is said to be because it is
necessary for a woman’s honour and pride and uncircumcised woman will
stand very little chance of getting married. FGM has also been said to
be carried out to safeguard the chastity of a woman before marriage
(Johnson, 2008). Some others also use it as a means of controlling and
de-sexualizing women and repressing sexual desire thus reducing the
chance of sexual promiscuity in marriage on the part of the woman
(Johnson, 2008). There are also others who claim that FGM is performed
for aesthetics and hygiene Idowu(2008). The practice is carried out as
means of purification and ensuring that a woman is clean (UNICEF 2008).
In some societies, the practices is
embedded in coming-of-age rituals, sometimes for entry into women’s
secret society, which are considered necessary for girls to become adult
and responsible members of the society (Johnson, 2008). Girls
themselves may desire to undergo the procedure as a result of social
pressure from peers and because of fear of stigmatization and rejection
by their communities if they do not follow the tradition (Behrendt,
2005). Thus in cultures where it is widely practiced, FGM has become
important part of the cultural identity of girls and women and may also
impart a sense of pride, a coming of age and a feeling of community
membership (UNICEF, 2005). FGM is a procedure which causes a number of
health problems for woman and girls. There is a great deal of evidence
indicating extremely detrimental long and short term health consequences
(UNICEF 2002). Although, there are virtually no documentation on the
social psychological and psycho-sexual effects of the practice, but it
is clear from anecdotal evidence of women’s experiences, that FGM
affects women adversely in various areas of their lives.
In Nigeria, the practice of FGM is
widespread among tribes and religious groups where the milder forms are
done except in south-south region where infibulations – the total
closing of the vulva is done but usually after age five (Nigeria
Demographic and Health survey, 2003). It is done more among the poorly
educated, low socio-economic and low social-status groups (ND HS 2003).
Although UNICEF (2005) gave the national prevalence of FGM of 61% among
Yoruba, 45% among Ibo and 1.5% among Hausa-Fulani ethnic group, this
making it a greater problem in southern Nigeria.Edo state is one of the
state in southern Nigeria therefore one may assume that FGM also occurs
there. However, the authenticity of this claim is not known as there
have not been any studies done to check if actually FGM exist in Edo
state. This study therefore hopes to determine if FGM actually exist as
of today in Edo state or if it was something that happened in the past.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The term Female Genital Mutilation
refers to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organ
for non-medical reasons. FGM has known health benefits on the contrary.
It is known to be injurious to girls and women in many ways with short
and long term health consequences( UNICEF, 2007).
For one to actually appreciate the
magnitude of the situation, it will be instructive to consider some data
as presented by (WHO 2006). An estimated 100 million to 140 million
girls and women worldwide have undergone Female Genital Mutilation and
more than 3 million girls are at risk for cutting each year on the
Africa continent alone( WHO 2008).
Foundation for women’s Health, research
and Development (2002) estimates that there are presently 86,000 first
generation immigrant and refugee women and girls in the UK who have
undergone FGM in their countries of origin with more than 7,000 girls at
risk.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies reported on 16th
August in 2006 that in Cameroon, FGM is carried out in a barbarous
manner by traditional midwives with no medical training, without
anesthetic and rudimentary instrument. It can give rise to serious
complications. Sometimes resulting in death. According to official
estimates Cameroon currently has a population of some 17 million, 52
percent of them are women. The United Nations figures suggest that
around 20 percent of these women are victims of FGM. An experience that
can occur at various ages at birth, during adolescence, just before
marriage or even after the birth of their first child.
In Kenya there are report that
in spite of the law prohibiting FGM, the practice still persist.
According to UNICEF (2007) one third of women between the ages of 15 and
49 had undergone FGM of the country’s 42 ethnic groups, only four
(thluo, Luhya, Teso, and Turkana) constituting 25 percent of the
country’s population did not traditionally practice FGM. According to
the NGO MaendeleoyaWanawake (Development of Women), the percentage of
girls undergoing the procedure were 80 to 90 percent in some district of
eastern, Nyanza, and Rift valley provinces.
According to a 2002 World Health
Organization’s Study, about 60% of the Nigerians total female population
have undergone one form of female Genital mutilation or the other. Also
a 2001 United Nations development Systems Study reported that 32.7
million Nigeria women have been affected by the same practice. Between
2000 and 2001, a study conducted by the center for Gender and Social
Policy Studies. ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria
was contracted by the following Organization World Health Organization
(WHO), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) the United Nation Population Fund (UNFPA),
the Nigeria Ministry of Women’s Affairs and the Nigerian Federal
Ministry of Health. The study covered 148,000 women and girls from 31
states of the country came out with a revelation that all the four
different types of Female Genital Mutilation identified so far, are
being practiced in all the ethnic communities in Nigeria except the
Fulani Ethnic Group in the North Western part.
Another disturbing trend in this matter
is that despite the fact that Nigeria was one of the five countries that
sponsored a resolution at the forty-six World Health Assembly calling
for the eradication of FGM in all Nations; the practice is still very
rampant in the country. Apart from its hazardous health effects, FGM has
been known to be one of the most offensive means of violating the
fundamental rights of women and female children so recognized by various
domestic and international legal instruments (Amos, 2004). Recent
review have suggested that FGM may increase the risk of HIV. Kankiet
(2002) reported that Senegalese prostitutes who had undergone FGM had a
significantly increased risk of HIV infection when compared to those
who had not.
Female genital mutilation is
associated with a series of health risk and consequences. Almost all
those who have undergone FGM experience pain and bleeding as a
consequence of the procedure (Obermeyer, 2005). The intervention itself
is traumatic as girls are usually physically held down during the
procedure (Chalmer, 2007). Those who are infibulated often have their
legs bound together for several days or weeks thereafter (Talle, 2002)
other physical and psychological health problems occur with varying
frequency.
Based on the foregoing, this
study intends to investigate the issues of FGM in Edo state.it seeks to
find answers to the question of whether FGM is a myth or reality and to
determine if it has relationship with factors like religion and
residential location.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To find out if FGM exist in Edo State
2. To determine if there are
differences between those who believe that FGM exist and those who do
not believe on its existence
3. To ascertain if FGM as ever existed in Edo State
4. To ascertain the implication of FGM for social work practice in Nigeria
5. To find out if religion has a role to play in the promotion or otherwise of FGM
6. To find out factors that may otherwise influence the existence of FGM
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is significant in two
dimensions which are theoretical and practical. Theoretically it is
hoped that the outcome of this study will constitute a scientific body
of knowledge that will become a point of reference for other scholars
who would want to carryout similar research. It will also add to
existing knowledge of FGM in southern Nigeria. Practically it is hoped
that this study will assist government in re-evaluating existing
policies so as to come up with a more realistic programmes and policies
towards the eradication of FGM in Edo state and Nigeria in general.
1.5 AREA OF STUDY
The study is on Female Genital
Mutilation. The research will be carried out in Edo state .However the
researcher decided to focus on Benin City which is the capital of Edo.
Benin can be describe as a microcosm of Edo State because all ethnic
groups are well represented there. Restricting this study to Benin city
was for rigor and want of time .Benin city is made up of three local
government areas; namely: Oredo, Egor and IkpobaOkha L.G.A. This
constitutes the geographical boundary within which the research will be
carried out. Edo State has a population of 3,218, 332 made up of
1,640,461 males and 1, 577, 871 females and a growth rate of 2.7% per
annum (NPC, 2006), as well as a total landmass of 19,187 square
kilometres, the state has a population density of about 168 persons per
square kilometres.
. It is made up of three major
ethnic groups; namely the Binis, Esan and Afemai. However the State has a
high presence of residents from across the country and the world
because of its cosmopolitan tendencies. Benin City the capital has a
history of being one of the foremost destinations of Europeans
during their exploration of Africa continent many centuries ago. Some
of the flash points have remained enviable tourists’ attraction for the
state.
The main ethnic groups in Edo State are: Edos, Afemais,
Esans, Owans and Akoko Edos. Virtually all the groups traced their
origin to Benin City hence the dialects of the groups vary with their
distance from Benin City. The Bini speaking people who occupy seven out
of the 18 Local Government Areas of the state constitute 57.54% while
others Esan (17.14%) Afemai comprising of Etsako (12.19%), Owan (7.43%),
and Akoko Edo (5.70%). However, the Igbira speaking communities exist
in Akoko Edo as well as Urhobos, Izons, Itsekiris communities in Ovia
North East and South West Local Government Areas especially in the
borderlands. Also, Ika speaking communities exist in Igbanke in
Orhionmwon LGA.
A lot of communities and indeed the
ruling dynasties in all the clans trace their roots to the ancient
kingdom of Benin. Cultural similarities are in the areas of religious
worships, folk-lore, dances, and festivals, traditional modes of
dressing, arts and craft. The political pattern and behaviour are based
on a situation where both the monarchical and republican ideas
flourished in an integrated manner. The colourful traditional festivals
in the state manifest its rich cultural heritage. Critical among these
are the Igue and Ekaba festivals done among the Binis and Manhood
initiation (age groups) by the Etsako people.
Edo State has a very rich tradition of
festivals and masquerades through which the people either appease the
various gods and goddesses initiate men and women into age-grades or as a
traditional get-together. They include:
The Igue festival
,Ekaba, Ukpe, Irua, Agiele, Adu-Ikukwua, Ebomisi, Eho, Ipihionua,
Ugbele, Itakpo, Ofarhe, Emomorhe, Iko, Uzo, Ugozo/Ihiasa, Uba, Egbere,
Owere, Ukpako, Oriminyam, Ohonmoimen, Itikiri, Ivhamen/Ororuen,
Amekpe,Oto-Uromi,Ighele,andOkpuge-Oro.
1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY
The study is on the myth and realities
of female genital mutilation in Edo state. It seeks to find out if FGM
truly exist in the state. The entire adult male and female population
constitutes the study population out of which a sample of four hundred
adult men and women will be used for the study.